Aṣṭāṅga, the four paths and Haṭha

1.8 Foundation of Yoga

Aṣṭāṅga yoga: eight limbs, one climb

The Yoga Sūtra has four chapters (pādas). The second, the Sādhana Pāda, is the practical one, and in its 29th sūtra Patañjali names all eight limbs in a single breath. IGNOU’s yoga course describes aṣṭāṅga as the tool Patañjali gives to the beginner. Source

Limbs, and also steps. A limb is part of one body: you do not finish yama before you are allowed to sit in āsana, and a beginner works on several limbs at once. Yet the order matters. Prāṇāyāma begins “when that is achieved”, that is, once the seat is steady (2.49), and each of the three inner limbs grows out of the one before it (3.1–3.3).

B.K.S. Iyengar’s Light on Yoga, one of the prescribed books, opens with a long introduction that walks through all eight limbs before it teaches a single posture: the āsanas are meant to sit inside this whole path. The home page has a one-line version of each limb. These notes go deeper, sūtra by sūtra, and the animation shows how the eight fit together.

The outer five: bahiraṅga

Bahis means outside. Patañjali calls the last three limbs “inner” compared with the ones before them (3.7), so the tradition calls the first five the outer limbs. They work with what can be seen and checked: behaviour, habits, the body, the breath and the senses.

Limb 1 · outer · YS 2.30–2.31, 2.35–2.39

Yama यम restraints

How we treat others: five things we hold back from.

अहिंसासत्यास्तेयब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहा यमाःahiṃsā-satya-asteya-brahmacarya-aparigrahā yamāḥ

Non-harming, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence and non-grasping are the yamas. YS 2.30 · Source

• Ahiṃsā, non-harming, in deed, word and thought. Fruit (2.35): around a person firmly established in it, hostility falls away.
• Satya, truthfulness. Fruit (2.36): actions and their results come to rest on that person’s word.
• Asteya, non-stealing. Fruit (2.37): all riches present themselves.
• Brahmacarya, continence; for householders, usually read as moderation of the senses. Fruit (2.38): vigour, vīrya, is gained.
• Aparigraha, non-grasping: not hoarding, not taking more than we need. Fruit (2.39): the how and why of one’s births becomes clear.

Sūtra 2.31 raises the bar: when the yamas are not limited by birth, place, time or circumstance, they become the mahāvrata, the great vow, universal and without exceptions. जातिदेशकालसमयानवच्छिन्नाः सार्वभौमा महाव्रतम् (Source). The fruits are Patañjali’s promises (2.35–2.39); read 2.35 in Sanskrit.

Today: leave the angry reply in drafts until morning. Ahiṃsā includes words, and a message cannot be unsent.

Limb 2 · outer · YS 2.32, 2.40–2.45

Niyama नियम observances

How we treat ourselves: five things we cultivate.

शौचसंतोषतपःस्वाध्यायेश्वरप्रणिधानानि नियमाःśauca-santoṣa-tapaḥ-svādhyāya-īśvarapraṇidhānāni niyamāḥ

Cleanliness, contentment, discipline, self-study and surrender to Īśvara are the niyamas. YS 2.32 · Source

• Śauca, cleanliness of body, surroundings and mind. Fruit (2.40–2.41): a healthy detachment from one’s own body and from contact with other bodies; then purity of mind, cheerfulness, one-pointedness, mastery of the senses and fitness to see the Self.
• Santoṣa, contentment. Fruit (2.42): happiness that nothing surpasses.
• Tapas, discipline: the heat of steady effort. Fruit (2.43): as impurities burn away, body and senses are perfected.
• Svādhyāya, self-study: study of the scriptures, and of oneself. Fruit (2.44): communion with one’s chosen deity, the iṣṭa-devatā.
• Īśvara-praṇidhāna, surrender to Īśvara, offering the fruits of action. Fruit (2.45): perfection in samādhi.

Three of the five, tapas, svādhyāya and īśvara-praṇidhāna, also form Patañjali’s kriyā yoga, the yoga of action, in the very first sūtra of the Sādhana Pāda (2.1). Source

Today: five minutes each morning with a page that lifts you, before the phone. That is svādhyāya, and keeping the habit is tapas.

Limb 3 · outer · YS 2.46–2.48

Āsana आसन posture, seat

A posture that is both steady and easy.

स्थिरसुखमासनम्sthira-sukham āsanam

Āsana is steady and comfortable. YS 2.46 · Source

How? By relaxing effort and letting the mind rest on the infinite (2.47). The result: the pairs of opposites, heat and cold, praise and blame, no longer knock us over (2.48). Patañjali speaks of a seat for meditation; the hundreds of postures came later, through Haṭha yoga. See Sthira sukham on the concept map, and the āsana unit on the next page.

Today: hold Vṛkṣāsana for five easy breaths rather than wobbling through fifteen tense ones. Steady and easy, together.

Limb 4 · outer · YS 2.49–2.53

Prāṇāyāma प्राणायाम breath regulation

Once the seat is steady, the flow of breath is regulated.

तस्मिन्सति श्वासप्रश्वासयोर्गतिविच्छेदः प्राणायामःtasmin sati śvāsa-praśvāsayor gati-vicchedaḥ prāṇāyāmaḥ

That being achieved, prāṇāyāma is the regulation, a pause, in the movement of inhalation and exhalation. YS 2.49 · Source

The breath can be held out, held in or simply stopped; it is measured by place, time and count, and becomes long and subtle (2.50). A fourth kind goes beyond outer and inner (2.51). Then the covering over the inner light thins (2.52), and the mind becomes fit for concentration (2.53). The practices themselves are on the prāṇāyāma page.

Today: before a difficult conversation, take six breaths with the out-breath a little longer than the in-breath.

Limb 5 · outer · YS 2.54–2.55

Pratyāhāra प्रत्याहार withdrawal of the senses

The senses stop running out after their objects and follow the mind inward.

स्वविषयासंप्रयोगे चित्तस्वरूपानुकार इवेन्द्रियाणां प्रत्याहारःsva-viṣaya-asaṃprayoge citta-svarūpānukāra ivendriyāṇāṃ pratyāhāraḥ

When the senses do not engage with their objects and, as it were, take on the nature of the mind, that is pratyāhāra. YS 2.54 · Source

Then comes the highest mastery over the senses (2.55). Pratyāhāra is the hinge between outer and inner practice: the tortoise drawing in its limbs is the classic picture.

Today: study with the phone face down in another room. The eyes and ears stop chasing every ping, and the mind is free to settle.

The inner three: antaraṅga

The last three limbs open the third chapter, the Vibhūti Pāda. They are not three separate techniques so much as three stages of one movement of attention: holding it, letting it flow, and losing oneself in it.

Limb 6 · inner · YS 3.1

Dhāraṇā धारणा concentration

Holding the mind on one place; dhṛ means to hold.

देशबन्धश्चित्तस्य धारणाdeśa-bandhaś cittasya dhāraṇā

Dhāraṇā is binding the mind to one place. YS 3.1 · Source

The “place” can be the breath at the nostrils, the heart, a flame, a sound or a form. The mind wanders; dhāraṇā is the patient bringing back. Why a form helps: a form to hold the mind.

Today: read one page, and each time the mind drifts, bring it back to the line without scolding it.

Limb 7 · inner · YS 3.2

Dhyāna ध्यान meditation

Holding becomes flowing: one unbroken stream of attention.

तत्र प्रत्ययैकतानता ध्यानम्tatra pratyaya-ekatānatā dhyānam

There, a continuous flow of the same awareness is dhyāna. YS 3.2 · Source

In dhāraṇā the mind is brought back again and again; in dhyāna it no longer needs bringing back. The image often used is oil poured from one vessel to another, in an unbroken stream. More on the meditation page.

Today: the few minutes when a musician practising scales stops counting and simply plays. Attention flows instead of being pushed.

Limb 8 · inner · YS 3.3

Samādhi समाधि absorption

Only the object remains; the sense of a separate meditator falls away.

तदेवार्थमात्रनिर्भासं स्वरूपशून्यमिव समाधिःtad evārtha-mātra-nirbhāsaṃ svarūpa-śūnyam iva samādhiḥ

That same dhyāna, when only the object shines forth, as if empty of its own form, is samādhi. YS 3.3 · Source

The kinds of samādhi are the subject of the first chapter, the Samādhi Pāda; see Samādhi on the concept map.

Today: we only get glimpses: the moment absorbed in a sunset when there is no “I am watching”, only the sky. Samādhi is that, made steady and clear.

Saṃyama: three in one

Class notes: the eight limbs and the four pādas were first listed on 6 September. The Yoga Sūtra and its place among the six darśanas: Foundations, 1.7.

1.9 Foundation of Yoga

Four paths, one summit: Jñāna, Bhakti, Karma and Rāja yoga

The Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga (MDNIY) notes that the Bhagavad Gītā elaborately presents Jñāna yoga, Bhakti yoga and Karma yoga, and lists them among the traditional schools of yoga, along with Dhyāna, Pātañjala, Haṭha, Mantra, Laya and Rāja yoga. Source IGNOU’s yoga course puts it simply: jñāna is knowing, karma is doing and bhakti is feeling, the three sides of a human being. Source Picture them as the head, the hands and the heart. Add the mind made still in meditation, Rāja yoga, and you have the four paths that Swami Vivekananda made famous in his four books, Jñāna-Yoga, Bhakti-Yoga, Karma-Yoga and Rāja-Yoga.

Jñāna yoga: the path of knowledge

Jñāna is knowledge, but not information: it is knowing what is real. Its tool is the buddhi, the discriminating intellect, and its goal is to realise that the individual self, the jīva, and Brahman are not two. In practice it is the path of Vedānta, one of the six darśanas, which Swami Harshananda’s Ṣaḍdarśana, one of the prescribed books, introduces alongside the Yoga darśana. More on the six darśanas.

IGNOU sets out the practice in two parts. First come four qualifications, the sādhana-catuṣṭaya, the four pillars a seeker builds: Source

1. Viveka, discrimination: telling the lasting (nitya) from the passing (anitya).
2. Vairāgya, dispassion: losing the thirst for pleasures seen or heard of. Patañjali defines it in YS 1.15.
3. Ṣaṭ-sampatti, the six treasures: śama (calm of mind), dama (restraint of the senses), uparati (withdrawal from what gives only passing joy), titikṣā (endurance of the pairs of opposites), śraddhā (faith in the teaching and the teacher) and samādhāna (a mind settled on the goal).
4. Mumukṣutva, the longing to be free.

Then the inner practice, in three stages taught by the Upaniṣads: śravaṇa, listening to the teaching; manana, reflecting on it until every doubt is answered, the way an animal chews the cud; and nididhyāsana, dwelling on it until it shapes how you live.

Knowledge of this kind is learned from a teacher. The Gītā says how to approach one: “learn it by humility, by sincere questions and by service; the wise who have seen the truth will teach you” (BG 4.34). Source More on the teacher in the teaching unit.

Today: when a worry flares up, ask: will this matter in five years? Sorting the lasting from the passing is viveka in everyday clothes.

Bhakti yoga: the path of the heart

Bhakti comes from the root bhaj, to serve or worship (IGNOU). It is love turned towards the divine, whatever form one holds dear. Chapter 12 of the Bhagavad Gītā is called Bhakti Yoga. It describes the devotee who is dear to the Lord not by rituals but by inner qualities: Source

Bhakti asks for nothing grand. “Whoever offers me with devotion a leaf, a flower, a fruit or water, I accept it” (BG 9.26). Source In the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the boy Prahlāda names nine ways of devotion, the navavidhā bhakti:

The nine as listed by The Yoga Institute, Mumbai, which also gives everyday ways to practise them. Source IGNOU adds the five moods (bhāvas) of love for God: śānta (peace), dāsya (a servant’s), sakhya (a friend’s), vātsalya (a parent’s) and mādhurya (a beloved’s). Source

Today: cook one meal as an offering: wash, chop and serve with full attention and love. Arcana and sevā in an ordinary kitchen.

Karma yoga: the path of the hands

Karma yoga is union through action. We cannot stop acting (BG 3.5), so the Gītā teaches how to act without being bound: do your duty fully, and let go of your grip on the result. This is niṣkāma karma, action without selfish desire for its fruits.

And the summary of the path: “so always do the work that must be done, without attachment; acting without attachment, a person reaches the highest” (BG 3.19). Source IGNOU draws four working rules from the Gītā: work with a sense of duty; work without getting entangled; do not let worry about results disturb the mind while you work; and meet success and failure with equanimity. Source My class notes work through both Gītā definitions with everyday examples: skill in action and equanimity, 27 September; and niṣkāma karma and sevā as the practice for the innermost sheath: the five kośas in practice, 11 October.

Today: prepare the class, the report or the meal as well as you possibly can, then let go of whether anyone praises it. The work was yours; the applause never was.

Rāja yoga, dhyāna, and where Haṭha fits

Rāja means royal: the royal path of the mind. Patañjali never uses the name; later tradition gave it to the meditative path of the Yoga Sūtra. The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā uses “rāja yoga” as one of the names of samādhi itself (HYP chapter 4). Its method is the eight limbs above, and its heart is a pair that both Patañjali and the Gītā name: practice and non-attachment.

Chapter 6 of the Gītā, on meditation, says the same about the restless mind: it is hard to hold, “but by practice and by dispassion it is held” (BG 6.35). Source Haṭha yoga is not a fifth rival path: the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā says it is taught only for the sake of Rāja yoga (see 1.10 below).

Today: ten minutes of sitting each morning, coming back to the breath every time the mind wanders. That return, again and again, is abhyāsa.

How the paths meet. The Gītā sets them on one ladder in a single verse:

Side by side

1.10 Foundation of Yoga

Haṭha yoga: balancing the sun and the moon

Ha and ṭha

In the dictionary, haṭha means force or effort, and Haṭha yoga is sometimes explained as the yoga of effort. The traditional teaching reads the word differently, as two seed syllables: ha, the sun, and ṭha, the moon. NIOS explains it this way: ha, the sun, is the piṅgalā nāḍī and stands for prāṇa, the vital force; ṭha, the moon, is the iḍā nāḍī and stands for the mind, mental energy. So Haṭha means the union of the two. Source This is a symbolic reading, not grammar, and a very useful one.

Why balance them? NIOS notes that in most of us the two are out of balance. When prāṇa dominates, a person tends towards restlessness, anger and aggression; when mental energy dominates, towards tension, anxiety and low mood. Haṭha gives techniques to bring the two into harmony. Source

Three channels: iḍā, piṅgalā and suṣumnā

A nāḍī (from nad, flow) is a channel of prāṇa in the subtle body, not a nerve. The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā speaks of 72,000; three matter most. Source The channels and cakras belong to the subtle body, the sūkṣma śarīra; the water-pipe picture of prāṇa and the nāḍīs is in the 11 October notes.

• Suṣumnā, the central channel, runs in the centre of the spine from the mūlādhāra cakra at its base to the sahasrāra at the crown.
• Iḍā starts on the left of mūlādhāra and criss-crosses the spine at each cakra, ending on the left of the ājñā cakra between the eyebrows. It is the moon (candra) nāḍī: cool, passive, inward.
• Piṅgalā mirrors it, from the right of mūlādhāra to the right of ājñā. It is the sun (sūrya) nāḍī: warm, active, outward.

You can feel this in the breath. NIOS: when the left nostril flows more freely, iḍā is active; when the right, piṅgalā; when both flow equally, suṣumnā. The dominance changes roughly every 60 to 90 minutes. At the physical level, NIOS links piṅgalā with the sympathetic nervous system (activity) and iḍā with the parasympathetic (rest). The main aim of Haṭha is a balanced flow in iḍā and piṅgalā; when both are purified and balanced and the mind is controlled, prāṇa begins to flow in suṣumnā. Source The cakras themselves are covered on the meditation page, and alternate-nostril breathing on the prāṇāyāma page.

A staircase to Rāja yoga

The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā opens by saying what Haṭha is for. IGNOU: Svātmārāma regards Haṭha as the preliminary stage of Rāja yoga, the means to master the body, while Rāja yoga masters the mind. Source Pradīpikā verse numbers in these notes follow the Bihar School of Yoga edition with Swami Muktibodhananda’s commentary, one of the prescribed books; other editions can differ by a verse or two.

So the body work is never the end. A strong, flexible body that never becomes a quiet mind has stopped halfway up the stairs.

The order of practice

MDNIY calls the Pradīpikā’s method caturaṅga yoga, yoga with four limbs (Source), and IGNOU lists them as āsana, prāṇāyāma, mudrā and bandha, and nādānusandhāna. The text gives the order of these four near the end of its first chapter (HYP 1.56). Ṣaṭkarma comes first only when it is needed:

1. Ṣaṭkarma, when needed. The six cleansing practices are for those with excess fat or phlegm (kapha); others need not do them (HYP 2.21; IGNOU). The six are dhauti, basti, neti, trāṭaka, nauli and kapālabhāti (HYP 2.22). Source Details on the ṣaṭkarma page.
2. Āsana, the first limb of Haṭha, “to gain steadiness, health and lightness of body” (kuryāt tad āsanaṃ sthairyam, HYP chapter 1). MDNIY quotes the same line. The Pradīpikā singles out Siddhāsana, Padmāsana, Siṃhāsana and Bhadrāsana.
3. Kumbhaka, prāṇāyāma with breath retention: eight kinds, in chapter 2. See the prāṇāyāma page.
4. Mudrā and bandha, seals and locks that direct prāṇa: ten, in chapter 3. See bandhas and mudrās.
5. Nādānusandhāna, attending to the inner sound (nāda), which leads into samādhi, in chapter 4.

Place, food and the guru

Place. The Pradīpikā describes the right place for practice in HYP 1.12–1.13: a small, simple room in a peaceful, well-governed land where food is easy to find, with a small door and no holes, kept clean and free of insects. IGNOU summarises these verses as the suitable place and house for practising Haṭha. Source Today: a quiet, clean, airy corner, the same one each day, with no clutter and no phone.

Food. Mitāhāra means moderate food: neither too much nor too little, pleasant and nourishing, leaving a quarter of the stomach empty (HYP 1.58). Source The Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā gives its own rules on diet and mitāhāra in its fifth chapter, before it teaches prāṇāyāma. More in the nutrition unit.

Helps and hindrances. The Pradīpikā lists six things that help practice and six that destroy it (HYP 1.15–1.16): see sādhaka and bādhaka.

The guru. Svātmārāma says he received Haṭha by the grace of Matsyendra and Gorakṣa (HYP 1.4), and IGNOU notes that chapter 2 prescribes prāṇāyāma under the supervision of one’s guru. Source Haṭha was always taught person to person, adjusted to the student in front of the teacher. A book or a web page can explain; it cannot watch you practise.

1.11 Foundation of Yoga

The three texts: Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā, Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā and Yoga Sūtra

MDNIY names the Ṣaḍaṅga (six-limbed) yoga of the Gorakṣaśataka, the Caturaṅga (four-limbed) yoga of the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā and the Saptāṅga (seven-limbed) yoga of the Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā as the main teachings of Haṭha. Source The history talk compares the counts too: how many limbs does yoga have?

Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā

Written by Svātmārāma of the Nātha lineage, which traces Haṭha from Ādinātha (Śiva) through Matsyendranātha and Gorakṣanātha. IGNOU dates the text between the mid-14th and mid-16th centuries (about 1350–1550 CE); NIOS places the Haṭha texts between the 9th and 15th centuries. Source · NIOS

• Chapter 1, Āsana: salutations and lineage, the place of practice, the helps and hindrances, 15 āsanas with their benefits, and food.
• Chapter 2, Prāṇāyāma: why the breath matters, the six ṣaṭkarma cleansings, nāḍī purification and eight kumbhakas.
• Chapter 3, Mudrā: kuṇḍalinī and ten mudrās, including the three bandhas.
• Chapter 4, Samādhi: laya (dissolution of the mind), nādānusandhāna in four stages, and the many names of samādhi.

Editions differ. Most have four chapters, but the Kaivalyadhama edition from Lonavala has a fifth, on correcting the ill effects of faulty practice; verse totals differ between manuscripts and editions; and some editions list ten yamas and ten niyamas in chapter 1. That is why the same verse can carry a different number in different books. (IGNOU)

Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā

A dialogue in which the sage Gheraṇḍa teaches his disciple Caṇḍakāpāli. It calls its path ghaṭastha yoga: ghaṭa is a pot, here the body, which must be purified and made strong to hold the practice. IGNOU dates it to about the 17th century. Its seven chapters each teach one limb, and two verses name what each limb gives: Source

Gheraṇḍa says there are as many āsanas as there are kinds of creatures, 84 lakh; of these, 84 are the best, and he chooses 32 for practice (GS 2.1–2.2). Many are on our āsana page, such as Bhujaṅgāsana, Gomukhāsana and Uṣṭrāsana.

Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra

A sūtra is a thread: a short aphorism, meant to be memorised and unpacked by a teacher. Patañjali’s text is the root text of the Yoga darśana. It begins with atha (“now”) and ends with iti. IGNOU gives its four pādas as 51, 55, 55 and 34 sūtras, 195 in all; some editions count 196, with one extra sūtra in the third pāda. Source Its date is debated; the textbooks give a period rather than a year (see the history talk). My first class on it: 6 September.

Side by side

The prescribed books meet these texts at different points. Light on Yoga teaches āsana and prāṇāyāma in modern detail, inside Patañjali’s eight limbs. Swami Harshananda’s Ṣaḍdarśana places the Yoga Sūtra among the six darśanas. Two come from the Bihar School of Yoga (Yoga Publications Trust, Munger). The Hatha Yoga Pradipika with Swami Muktibodhananda’s commentary is an English edition of the Pradīpikā itself (IGNOU lists it among the editions), and its verse numbers are the ones used here. Swami Satyananda Saraswati’s Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha is a practice manual; its title names the practices of the Pradīpikā’s first three chapters.

Quick revision

Test yourself

Sources

Where this comes from

• Prescribed books: B.K.S. Iyengar, Light on Yoga (its introduction on the eight limbs); Swami Harshananda, Ṣaḍdarśana, the six systems of Indian philosophy (Ramakrishna Math), on the Yoga and Vedānta darśanas; Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra; Hatha Yoga Pradipika with Swami Muktibodhananda’s commentary (Bihar School of Yoga / Yoga Publications Trust, Munger), whose verse numbers these notes follow; Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha (Bihar School of Yoga / Yoga Publications Trust, Munger), for the practices named in the Haṭha sections. Explained in my own words; no quotations, no page numbers.
• Yoga Sūtra: 1.12, 1.15, 2.1, 2.29–2.55, 3.1–3.8, 4.34. Text from IIT Kanpur’s Heritage site (the former Gita Supersite), for example YS 2.29 and YS 3.4.
• Bhagavad Gītā: 2.47, 2.48, 2.50, 3.5, 3.19, 4.34, 6.35, 9.26, chapter 12 (12.12, 12.13). IIT Kanpur Heritage; chapter 12 summary on Learn Geeta.
• Upaniṣad and Purāṇa: Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.5 (IIT Kanpur Heritage); Bhāgavata Purāṇa 7.5.23 (JKYog India; the nine forms also at The Yoga Institute).
• Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā (numbered as in the Bihar School edition): 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.12–1.13, 1.15–1.16, 1.56 (order of practice), 1.58, chapter 1 (āsana), 2.21–2.22, chapters 2–4. Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā: 1.10–1.11, 2.1–2.2, chapter 5.
• IGNOU, BYG-001 Introduction to Yoga and Yogic Texts: Unit 3, Streams of yoga: Jñāna, Bhakti and Karma; Unit 7, Patañjali Yoga Sūtra; Unit 8, Haṭhapradīpikā; Unit 9, Gheraṇḍa Saṃhitā.
• NIOS, Physical Education and Yog (373): Lesson 18, Haṭha Yog (ha and ṭha, the nāḍīs, HYP 1.2 and 2.22); Lesson 22, Mudrā and Bandha (precautions).
• MDNIY (Ministry of Ayush), I.V. Basavaraddi, Yoga: its origin, history and development: the schools of yoga, the Gītā’s three paths, caturaṅga, ṣaḍaṅga and saptāṅga yoga.
• Kaivalyadhama, Lonavala, Mitāhāra: yogic nutrition and mindful eating (HYP 1.58).
• My class notes: 6 September, 27 September, 11 October, 18 October; and From a seal to Rajpath, the history-of-yoga talk.